A New Approach to Portfolio Matrix Analysis for Marketing Planning

A NEW APPROACH TO PORTFOLIO MATRIX ANALYSIS FOR STRATEGIC MARKETING PLANNING 1 2 Vladimir Dobric , Boris Delibasic Faculty of organizational science, [email  protected] rs 2 Faculty of organizational science, delibasic. [email  protected] rs 1 Abstract: Portfolio matrix is probably the most important tool for strategic marketing planning, especially in the strategy selection stage. Position of the organization in the portfolio matrix and it’s corresponding marketing strategy depends on the aggregation of values of relevant strategic factors. Traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis uses averaging function as an aggregation operator.This approach is very limited in realistic business environment characterized by complex relations between strategic factors. An innovative approach to portfolio matrix analysis, presented in this paper, can be used to express complex interaction between strategic factors. The new approach is based on the logical aggregation operator, a generalized aggregation operator from which other aggregation operators can be obtained as special cases. Example of traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis given in this paper clearly shows it’s inherited limitations.The new approach applied to the same example eliminates weaknesses of traditional one and facilitates strategic marketing planning in realistic business environment. Key words: Portfolio matrix analysis, strategic marketing planning, logical aggregation, aggregation operator. 1. INTRODUCTION The portfolio matrix analysis is widely used in strategic management [2, 3, 6]. It offers a view of the position of the organization in its environment and suggests generic strategies for the future. Some of the most frequently used portfolio matrices are the ADL (developed by Arthur D.Little), the BCG (Boston Consulting Group) and the GE (General Electric) McKinsey matrix. Other models that can be considered as versions or adaptations of the original GE McKinsey matrix are the Shell directional policy matrix and McDonald’s directional policy matrix (DPM) that is used in this paper. The application of any of these portfolio matrices can be, roughly, divided into two stages: the first stage, which includes the analysis of the business position of the organization, and the second stage in which the strategies that should be used in future are recommended based on the estimated position.The difference between aforementioned matrices lies in number and meaning of factors used in the analysis process as well as in the number and generality of recommended strategies. It is common for all the portfolio matrices that the position of the organization in a portfolio matrix is based on estimated values of two factors: the one describing external environment (market attractiveness in DPM) and the other describing inner characteristics of the organization compared to the major competitors (business strengths/position in DPM).On the basis of portfo lio matrix analysis , a generic marketing strategy is recommended based on an organization’s position in the portfolio matrix. In the portfolio matrix analysis, values of two factors describing external and internal environment are estimated as aggregations of values of strategic factors influencing respective environment. The choice of the most adequate aggregation functions depends on the condition in which organization operates, i. e. an aggregation functions describing external and internal environment should have a behaviour which models organization’s external and internal environment conditions respectively.In the traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis, weighted arithmetic mean is commonly used as an aggregation function. This aggregation operator describes an averaging behaviour, thus, it can be used to model business environment in which high and low values of strategic factors average each other. In the realistic business environment strategic fact ors can interact in a more complex way, i. e. they can average each other, reinforce or weaken each other (disjunctive or conjunctive behaviour), or exhibit various forms of mixed interactions [2, 3, 6].It is clear that the use of weighted arithmetic mean as an aggregation operator can’t express all the possible interactions between strategic factors that exist in a realistic business environment. This explains why the traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis is highly limited, with the inherited weaknesses that can’t be overcome without substantial modification. Therefore, under previous conditions, it is obvious that a new approach to portfolio matrix analysis is needed.This new approach must take in consideration all the possible forms of interactions between strategic factors that can occur in a realistic business environment. These interactions can be expressed with a logical aggregation operator, so a new approach to portfolio matrix analysis can be base d on this operator. W eighted arithmetic mean and other known aggregation operators are just, as we will see in the following sections, special cases of logical aggregation operator. 2. THE MCDONALD’S DIRECTIONAL POLICY MATRIX (DPM)Although the DPM, like other models of portfolio matrices, attempts to define an organization’s strategic position and strategy alternatives, this objective can’t be met without considering what is meant by the term „organizationâ€Å". The accepted level at which an organization can be analysed using the DPM is that of the „strategic business unitâ€Å". The most common definition of an SBU is as follows [3]: (1) It will have common segments and competitors for most of the products; (2) It will be a competitor in an external market; (3) It is a discrete, separate and identifiable „unitâ€Å"; 4) Its manager will have control over most of the areas critical to success. DPM has two dimensions each built up from a n umber of factors: (1) Market attractiveness and (2) Business strengths/position. Using these factors, and some scheme for weighting them according to their importance, strategic business units are classified into one of nine cells in a 3 X3 matrix. Each cell is connected to a generic strategy recommended by the DPM. Factors used to form aggregated dimensions of DPM vary according to concrete circumstances in which SBU operates. Notice that previous explanations taken rom [3] suggest weighted arithmetic mean as an aggregation operator, thus, traditional approach to DPM analysis only considers a case of averaging behaviour between strategic factors. That is only one of the possible interactions between strategic factors that can occur in realistic business environment. Other possible interactions like conjunction, disjunction or mixed interaction can’ t be modelled by using weighted sum of factors as an aggregation operator. Definitions of market attractiveness and business str engths/positions dimensions are g iven in [3].Market attractiveness is a measure of the marketplace potential to yield growth in sales and profits. It is important to highlight the need for an objective assessment of market attractiveness using data from the organization’s external environment. The criteria themselves will, of course, be determined by the organization carrying out the exercise and will be relevant to the objectives the organization is trying to achieve, but they should be independent of the organization’s position in its m arkets [3]. Business strengths/position is a measure of organization’s actual strengths in the marketplace (i. . the degree to which it can take advantage of a market opportunity). Thus, it is an objective assessment of an organization’s ability to satisfy market needs relative to competitors. DPM, together with generic marketing strategy options is shown in Picture 1. Picture 1: Directional policy matrix 3. TRADITIONAL APPROACH TO DIRECTIONAL POLICY MATRIX ANALYSIS In this section, traditional approach to DPM analysis using simple example will be presented, highlighting it’s inherited limitations originating from using non-adequate aggregation functions.Tables 1 and 2 are slight modification of tables that are used in DPM analysis example in [3] on pages 202 and 203, where market attractiveness and business strengths/position are evaluated by using weights and scores of relevant strategic factors. The only modification applied on tables in [3] is the normalization of weights, scores and corresponding evaluations to [0, 1] interval. This is done with simple transformation, which is covered in the following sections. Table 1: Market attractiveness evaluation Strategic factor (Fi) Score (si) Total (M) 0. 25 0. 25 0. 5 0. 15 0. 1 0. 1 1. Growth 2. Profitability 3. Size 4. Vulnerability 5. Competition 6. Cyclicality W eight (wi) 0. 6 0. 9 0. 6 0. 5 0. 8 0. 25 0. 15 0. 225 0. 09 0. 075 0. 08 0. 25 Total 1 0. 645 Table 2: Business strengths/position evaluation Strategic factor (Fi) 7. Price 8. Product 9. Service 10. Image Total W eight (wi) 0. 5 0. 25 0. 15 0. 1 1 You company Competitor A Competitor C Score (si) Total (B) Score Total (A) Score Total (C) 0. 5 0. 6 0. 8 0. 6 0. 25 0. 15 0. 12 0. 06 0. 6 0. 8 0. 4 0. 5 0. 3 0. 2 0. 06 0. 05 0. 4 1 0. 6 0. 3 0. 2 0. 25 0. 09 0. 03 . 58 0. 61 0. 57 Market attractiveness (M) and business strengths/position (B) are evaluated using weighted arithmetic mean as an aggregation function of scores {s1, †¦, s6} and {s7, †¦, s10} given for relevant strategic factors {F1, †¦, F10} using weights {w1, †¦, w10}: M = w1 s1 + w2 s2 + w3 s3 + w4 s4 + w5 s5 + w6 s6 = 0. 645 (1) B = w7 s7 + w8 s8 + w9 s9 + w10 s10 = 0. 58 (2) The same equations can be given in matrix form: M = W M SM (3) B = W B SB (4) where M and B are market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation respectively, W M = [w1, T , w6] and SM = [s 1, †¦, s6] are weighting and scoring vectors for market attractiveness strategic factors , T and W B = [w7, †¦, w10] and SB = [s7, †¦, s10] are weighting and scoring vectors for business strengths/position strategic factors. Notice that the exact position of the organization on the DPM is not given with business strengths/position value (B), but the relative business strengths/position value (BR), since business strengths/position is actually a measure of organizational abilities (B) (internal environment) relative to the competitors (i. e. respective abilities of market leader) [3].In our example market leader is Competitor A (from Table 2), thus, organization’s relative business strengths/position value (BR) is calculated as: BR = B/A (5) Relative business strengths/position value (BR) is then plotted on the horizontal axis of the DPM using a logarithmic scale [3]. These explanations are not of importance for the domain of our investigation, so no futher cons iderations regarding relative business strengths/position value (BR) and DPM plotting are given. In the rest of this paper, the only consideration will be given to market attractiveness (M) and business strengths/position (B) evaluation.W eighted arithmetic mean used for an aggregation function assumes that the interactions between strategic factors show averaging behavior, i. e. it is used to model business environment in which values of strategic factors average each other. This is the mayor drawback of traditional DPM analysis. Realistic business environment demands more modelling power for more complex factors interactions. Besides averaging, strategic factors can reinforce or weaken each other (disjunctive or conjunctive behaviour respectively), or exhibit various forms of interactions which are neither strictly averaging, conjunctive or disjunctive, but mixed, i. . aggregation function exhibits different behaviour on different parts of the domain (mixed behaviour). Under these circumstances, it is obvious that a new approach to portfolio matrix analysis demands an usage of different aggregation operator, the one capable of modelling all the possible interactions between strategic factors that can take place in a realistic business environment. The paper presents an approach to portfolio matrix analysis, using logical aggregation operator, which eliminates weaknesses of traditional one. If we return to ur example shown in Tables 1 and 2, we can restate possible business external and internal environment conditions in the following way: 1) It is possible that interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show averaging behaviour, i. e. scores {s1, †¦, s6} or {s7, †¦, s10} given to strategic factors {F1, †¦, F10} can average each other using weights {w1, †¦, w10}. In this case market attractiveness and business strengths/position are evaluated as shown in equations (1) and (2) , or in their m atrix equivalents (3) and (4). ) It is possible that interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show conjunctive behaviour, i. e. scores {s1, †¦, s6} or {s7, †¦,s10} given to strategic factors {F1, †¦, F10} can weaken each other. In this case market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation depends upon the lowest score among the relevant factors: M = min(s1, †¦, s6) (6) B = min(s7, †¦, s10) (7) 3) It is possible that interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show disjunctive behaviour, i. e. cores { s1, †¦, s6} or {s7, †¦, s10} given to strategic factors {F1, †¦, F10} can reinforce each other. In this case market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation depends upon the highest score among the relevant factors: M = max(s1, †¦, s6) (8) B = max(s7, †¦, s10) (9) 4) It is possible that interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show mixed behaviour. For example, scores {s1, †¦,s6} or {s7, †¦,s10} given to strategic factors {F1, †¦, F10} can average, reinforce and weaken each other depending on their values.Thus, the aggregation function can be conjunctive for low scores, disjunctive for high scores, and perhaps averaging when some scores are high and some are low (different behaviour of aggregation function on different parts of the domain). Example for this kind of aggregation function’s behaviour will be given in the following sections. Logical aggregation operator can express all previous types of interactions, so it naturally imposes itself as a replacement to weighted arithmetic mean aggregation operator in the new approach to portfolio matrix analysis.Notice that interactions between strategic factors from organization’s external environment (market attractiveness factors) and those from organizationâ €™s internal environment ( business strengths/position factors) are not recognized in traditional approach to DPM analysis [3]. If those interactions can be recognized, they can easily be integrated into the model in the new approach. In the following section basic theory of logical aggregation will be briefly examined. After examining the theory, a simple example of new approach to portfolio matrix analysis using Tables 1 and 2 will be presented. . LOGICAL AGGREGATION Aggregation functions are functions with special properties. The purpose of aggregation functions (they are also called aggregation operators, both terms are used interchangeably in the existing literature) is to combine inputs and produce output, where the inputs are typically interpreted as degrees of preference, strength of evidence or support of hypothesis [1]. If we consider a finite set of inputs I = {i1, †¦, in}, we can aggregate them into single representative value by using infinitely many aggregatio n functions.They are grouped in various families such as means, triangular norms and conor ms, Choquet and Sugeno integral, uninorms and nullnorms, and many others [1]. The question arises how to chose the most suitable aggregation function for a specific application. This question can be answered by choosing logical aggregation function – a generalized aggregation operator that can be reduced to any other known one. Logical aggregation is an aggregation method that combines inputs and produces output using logical aggregation operator [4, 5].In a general case logical aggregation is carrried out in two distinct steps: 1) Normalization of input values which results in a generalized logical and/or [0, 1] value of analyzed input ij: ? ? ? : I > [0, 1] (10) 2) Aggregation of normalized values of inputs into resulting globaly representative value with a logical aggregation operator: n Aggr: [0, 1] > [0, 1] (11) The first step explains the reason for modification of tables from [3] in previous section, in order to obtain Tables 1 and 2 with normalized values of strategic factors’ scores on which logical aggregation operator can be applied.Operator of logical aggregation in a general case (Aggr ) is a pseudo-logical function ( ), a linear convex combination of generalized Boolean polynomials ( ) [4, 5]: Aggr (? i1? , †¦ , ? in? ) = (? i1? , †¦ , ? in? ) = ? wj? j? (? i1? , †¦ , ? in? ) (12) where (? ) is a generalized product operator and (? ) is an aggregation measure as defined in [4, 5]. Generalized Boolean polynomial is a value realization of Boolean logical function ?. Boolean logical function is an element of Boolean algebra of inputs ? (i1, †¦ , in) ?BA(I), to which corresponds uniquely a generalized Boolean polynomial (? i1? , †¦ , ? in? ) as it’s value: : [0, 1] > [0, 1] n (13) Logical aggregation operator depends on the chosen measure of aggregation (? ) and operator of generalized product (? ). By a corresp onding choice of the measure of aggregation (? ) and generalized product (? ) the known aggregation operators can be obtained as special cases [4, 5], e. g. for additive aggregation measure (? := ? add) and generalized product (? := min) logical aggregation operator reduces to weighted arithmetic mean: Aggradd in (? i1? , †¦ , ? in? ) = ? wj (? ij? ) (14) After considering basic theory of logical aggregation, we can return to the domain of our investigation. In the following section the new approach to portfolio matrix analysis will be presented thoroughly using the same data from Tables 1 and 2. 5. A NEW APPROACH TO PORTFOLIO MATRIX ANALYSIS If we consider again Tables 1 and 2, and four cases of possible business environment conditions as defined in Section 3, we can design new aggregation functions that model all the aforementi oned conditions using logical aggregation operator.In this section an example to all four types of strategic factors interactions will be given, toget her with logical functions modeling them. A starting point for the new approach to portfolio matrix anal ysis is a finite set of strategic factors F = {F1, †¦ , F10} and a Boolean algebra BA(F), defined over it. The task of logical aggregation in DPM analysis is the fusion of strategic factors’ scores into resulting market attractiveness and business strengths/position values using logical tools. Logical aggregation has two steps: (1) Normalization of strategic factors’ scores (score Sj corresponds to factor Fj as its predefined value): ? ? : Sj > [0, 1] (15) that results in a logical and/or score sj ? [0, 1] of analyzed strategic factor Fj (j = 1.. |F|). Normalization of scores in S is done with simple transformation. In the original tables in [3], score (Sj) of strategic factor (Fj) belongs to interval [0.. 10], e. g. Strategic factor Growth (F1) has score S1 = 6 in the original table in [3]. The normalized score (s1) for this factor (F1) is given in Table 1 wit h the following equation: s1 = 6/10 = 0. 6 (16) The same transformation is applied to the rest of the strategic factors in tables in [3], resulting in Tables 1 and 2. 2) Aggregation of normalized scores {s1, †¦ , s6} and {s7, †¦ , s10} of factors {F1, †¦ , F10} into resulting market attractiveness (M) and business strengths/position (B) values with a logical aggregation operator: M = Aggr (s1, †¦ , s6) (17) B = Aggr (s7, †¦ , s10) (18) Aggregation of scores {s1, †¦ , s6} and {s7, †¦ , s10} for strategic factors {F1, †¦ , F10} is accomplished using generalized Boolean polynomials (? M? ) and (? B? ): Aggr (s1, †¦ , s6) = ? M? (s1, †¦ , s6) = [? M(F1, †¦ , F6)]? (19) Aggr (s7, †¦ , s10) = ? B? (s7, †¦ s10) = [? B(F7, †¦ , F10)]? (20) Generalized Boolean polynomials ? M? (s1, †¦ , s6) and ? B? (s7, †¦ , s10) are value realizations of Boolean logical functions ? M(F1, †¦ , F6) and ? B(F7, †¦ , F10) , which belong to Boolean algebra of strategic factors BA(F). Notice that interactions between strategic factors from organization’s external environment (market attractiveness factors) and those from organization’s internal environment (business strengths/position factors) are not stated in [3]. If they exist, they can easily be integrated into the model.Adequate generalized product operator (? ) in the domain of portfolio matrix analysis is min operator (? := min). If we return to the possible business environment conditions stated in Section 3, we can formulate logical functions to express corresponding types of interactions between the strategic factors: 1) If the interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show averaging behaviour, then the new approach to portfolio matrix analysis reduces to traditional one, as stated in equations (1) and (2), or matrix equivalents (3) and (4). ) If the interactions between market a ttractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show conjunctive behaviour, they are expressed in the following way: ? M = F1 ? F2 ? F3 ? F4 ? F5 ? F6 (21) ?B = F7 ? F8 ? F9 ? F10 (22) Market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation are given with corresponding generalized Boolean polynomial (? := and, ? := min): M = Aggrand (s1, †¦ , s6) = ? M min B = Aggrand min = [F1 ? F2 ? F3 ? F4 ? F5 ? F6] min (s7, †¦ , s10) = ? B min min = [F7 ? F8 ? F9 ? F10] min(s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6) = 0. 25 (23) min (24) = min(s7, s8, s9, s10) = 0. 5 3) If the interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show disjunctive behaviour, they are expressed in the following way: ? M = F1 ? F2 ? F3 ? F4 ? F5 ? F6 (25) ?B = F7 ? F8 ? F9 ? F10 (26) Market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation are given with corresponding generalized Boolean polynomial (? := or, ? := min): M = Aggror (s1, †¦ , s6) = ? M min min = [F1 ? F2 ? F3 ? F4 ? F5 ? F6] min max(s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6) = 0. 9 (27) B = Aggror (s7, †¦ , s10) = ? B min min = [F7 ? F8 ? F9 ? F10] min = max(s7, s8, s9, s10) = 0. 8 (28) 4) If the interactions between market attractiveness or business strengths/position strategic factors show mixed behaviour (aggregation function exhibits different behaviour on different parts of the domain), they can be modelled with the following logical functions, e. g. realistic external and internal business environment, where strategic factors show mixed behaviour, can be modelled as: ?If the external environment conditions are that profitabilty (F2), size (F3) and cyclicality (F6) are important, but if the profitability (F2) is not high enough, growth (F1), vulnerability (F4) and competition (F5) are important, we can write the following expression: ?M = (F2 ? F3 ? F6) ? (c(F2) ? F1 ? F4 ? F5) (29) ? If the internal environment conditions are that price (F7) and product (F8) are importan t, but if the price (F7) and product (F8) are not competitive, service (F9) and image (F10) are important, we can write the following expression: ?B = (F7 ? F8) ? (c(F7 ? F8) ?F9 ? F10) (30) Market attractiveness and business strengths/position evaluation, for organization’s external and internal environment conditions respectively, are given with corresponding generalized Boolean polynomial (? := min): M = Aggr? (s1, †¦ , s6) = ? M = [(F2 ? F3 ? F6) ? (c(F2) ? F1 ? F4 ? F5)] = = s2 ? s3 ? s6 + (1 – s2) ? s1 ? s4 ? s5 – s2 ? s3 ? s6 ? (1 – s2) ? s1 ? s4 ? s5 = 0. 25 (31) B = Aggr? (s7, †¦ , s10) = ? B = [(F7 ? F8) ? (c(F7 ? F8) ? F9 ? F10)] = = s7 ? s8 + (1 – (s7 ? s8)) ? s9 ? s10 – s7 ? s8 ? (1 – (s7 ? s8)) ? s9 ? s10 = 0. 6 (32) min min min min min minRemember that when plotting the DPM, the exact position of the organization on the business strengths/position axis (horizontal) is calculated using relative business strengt hs/position value (BR) and logarithmic scale (see equation (5)), for all aforementioned types of strategic factors interactions . 5. CONCLUSION Traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis uses weighted arithmetic mean as an aggregation function, thus, it can only be used to model business environment in which strategic factors’ interactions show averaging behavior. This is only one of the four cases of realistic business environment conditions, i. . strategic factors’ interactions showing conjunction, disjunction or mixed behavior are not covered in the traditional approach. The new approach uses generalized aggregation function – operator of logical aggregation. This operator can model all the possible business environment conditions – types of interactions between the strategic factors. This paper shows that traditional approach to portfolio matrix analysis is just a special case of the new one, since the weighted arithmetic mean is actually a spe cial case of logical aggregation operator.Usage of logical aggregation operator in the new approach clearly improves the traditional one, allowing more modeling power for complex relations among the strategic factors. Since the new approach to portfolio matrix analysis covers all four types of strategic factors’ interactions, it facilitates strategic marketing planning in a realistic business environment. 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Beliakov G. , Pradera A. , Calvo T. , Aggregation functions: A guide for practitioners , Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heilderberg, 2007. [2] Leibold M. Probst G. J. B. , Gibbert M. , Strategic Management in the Knowledge Economy†, Wiley VCH, 2005. [3] McDonald Malcolm, Marketing Plans (fourth edition), Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999. [4] Radojevic D. , â€Å"Logical aggregation based on interpolative Boolean algebraâ€Å", Mathware & Soft Computing, 15 (2008) 125 -141. [5] Radojevic D. , â€Å"(0,1) – valued logic: A natural generalization of Bool ean logicâ€Å", Yugoslav Journal of operational Research, 10 (2000) 185 – 216. [6] Roney C. W. , Strategic Management Methodology, Praeger Publishers, 2004.

Loneliness in of Mice and Men

8. Loneliness is a very important theme in Of Mice and Men. Which characters are lonely and why? Of Mice and Men illustrates the loneliness of ranch life during the Great Depression in the 1930’s. Steinbeck creates a lonely and a blue atmosphere at many times in the novel. He uses words ‘Soledad’ which is referred to solitude, which means loneliness; and the card game ‘Solitare’ which means by one’s self. Not all the characters are lonely; Steinbeck makes it clear that only Crooks, Curley’s wife and Candy are the lonely characters in the ranch.The loneliest character is Crooks. He is isolated from the other ranchers because of his race. He isn’t allowed to join any social activities at the ranch and is completely left out alone. He’s so lonely that he considers reading books to accompany him. Even though he doesn’t show it, he is desperate to have someone to talk to. When Lennie comes in his room, Crooks just keeps o n talking to him and doesn’t care whether he was listening or not. Crooks says to Lennie â€Å"A guy goes nuts if he ain't got nobody. Don't matter no difference who the guy is, longs he with you.I tell ya a guy gets too lonely an’ he gets sick. † This shows that he desperately needs a friend to talk to and he’s at the point where he is becoming emotionally sick of it. Crooks also says â€Å"An' never a God damn one of `em ever gets it. Just like heaven. Ever'body wants a little piece of lan'. It's just in their head. † This shows that he has no hope for a bright future and that he doesn’t believe that the men from the ranch are ever going to a better place. The second loneliest is Candy, an old swamper at the ranch who is disabled due to an accident in the past.His only companionship is his ancient dog, until Carlson shoots it for him because it is old and useless, just like Candy. Later on in the novel, he wishes he should have shot the do g himself, which is similar to the ending of the novel. When his dog dies, he looks for new friendship, he doesn’t want to grow older being by himself. He hopes George and Lennie will become his friends when he hears them talking about their dream ranch. He offers his savings for the dream, which makes George and Lennie's dream begin to be actually possible to achieve. S'pose I went in with you guys. That's three hundred and fifty bucks I'd put in†¦ How'd that be? † This shows that he really intends to be part of the dream. He is useless at the ranch, he knows that he’s going to be sacked sooner or later and he will have no place, no friends and nothing. That’s why he is giving his savings for the dream ranch, which possibly he could live the rest of his life in. Candy desperately tries to be a part of the dream shows us how lonely he really is. Curley's wife is the least lonely character out of all three.She’s controlled by her husband, Curley , who doesn’t let her speak to any of the men on the ranch, which leads her into being lonely. Even though Curley's wife is mentioned frequently, Steinbeck doesn’t reveal her real name throughout the whole novel. All the ranchers consider her as an object, instead of a normal human being. The ranchers don’t even bother to start a conversation with her because of her husband, who thinks he is all tough and strong. Curley’s wife has no female friends on the ranch, so the ranchers are her only option, but too bad they don’t want to be friends with her.She realizes that Lennie isn’t like the other men and she intends to be friends with him. She says to Lennie â€Å"Think I don’t like to talk to somebody ever once in a while? † This shows that she’s trying to say that she is desperately wants to talk to somebody as she hardly ever talks to anyone because nobody at the ranch listens to her. Although she has a husband which sho uld make her not as lonely as she really is, the fact is that he ignores her and just goes out to Cat houses once in a while, yet he doesn’t allow to talk to anybody or to go anywhere.I think in conclusion, loneliness have a big affect on people. It makes Crooks, Candy and Curley’s wife suffer. Crooks says he’s sick because he doesn’t have anybody to talk to. Candy is very old and his old dog is his only friend, which then gets shot, which makes him even lonelier. Curley’s wife dies because she has no one to talk to as well, so when she starts talking to the childish Lennie, who accidently kills her in the barn. I think the other men like Slim, Carlson and Whit are also lonely but they don’t make it as a big deal and they just go on with their lives

Sex in mythology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sex in mythology - Essay Example During his study he observed that majority of his patients talked about things that they could little express. The reason for this difficulty he believed was repression of feelings due to taboos and painful experience attached to such forbidden ideas. He hypothesized that that one main reason for such anxiety was the repressed energy of libido or sex that was held by human due to several defense mechanisms. He added fear or feeling of guilt or shame to such fantasies that were not possible to express in normal life. He explains that jokes, slip of tongue, customs, myths and dreams are kind of ventilation and unconscious expression for such repressed feelings. Freud believes that Libido (sex) develop in humans by changing objects. He argued that during the sexual development, individuals are fixated on special objects to derive pleasure; such as sucking thumb; which later on changes to fixation on the mother as a sexual object (which he named as Oedipus Complex). In the case of daughter it is the fixation on father named as Electra complex. The Oedipus complex is a conflict that Freud called neuroses in childhood; where a male child desires excessive love towards his mother and looks at his father with jealousy. The central theme of Freud psychoanalysis theory is that children go through Oedipus complex, but it is their fear of castration that leads them to identify themselves with father rather than desiring mother. The child develop ultimately resolves the Oedipus complex by following parental values; which give rise to super-ego and forms the unrealistic ideals where a child find himself torn between his desires and parents ideal through out his life resulting in anxiety, fear and repressed wishes. Oedipus complex is named on Greek tragedy Oedipus the son of King Laius of Thebes and Queen Jocasta. Oedipus was left in the mountains to be devoured by wolves but found and raised by a shepherd. Years later Oedipus kills his father unknowingly and marries his mother. The story comes to a tragic end where Oedipus blinds himself and begs in streets after knowing the truth. Freud relied on self-analysis and on the anthropological studies to develop his theory of Oedipus complex. He mentions that Oedipus conflict is the expression of wish through a myth, and how human desire incest, but they repress such desires. The legend of Electra; the daughter of Agamemnon who killed her mother to get his father is named as Electra complex (which was named by Carl Jung as female Oedipus attitude in young girls). What Freud points out that during the phallic stage daughters are more attached to father and imagine father; that results in hostility towards mother, the myth of Electra is one such exam ple. Freud mentions that this phenomenon is present in different kind of fairy tales and that the myth is in fact a distorted version of wish fulfillment of an entire race or nation. He sees the Oedipus Complex not as a story, but a real episode as children desire parents during their developing years but refrain to act due to social pressure or taboo. He even mentions a real incident where sons oppressed by father revolted and overtook the father's wives after killing wife (Similar incidents used to happen in ancient Arab culture). But the subsequent generation refrained from doing so; thus Freud concludes that myths are repression of ideas; which he further elaborates in

CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Essay

CROSS CULTURAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS - Essay Example On the other hand, if they insist on promoting their own culture and their value system, whether it agrees with others or not, then it can be surmised that sooner or later, the personal relationship will encounter major conflicts. This analysis is logical and general, but it goes without saying that there is more than meets the eye. In the case of merging two different cultures in business, many factors need to be considered in order for people to work together harmoniously. Key to understanding cultural differences are theoretical foundations that explain them. Chocoladefabriken Lindt & Sprà ¼ngli AG (known as Lindt) is an international company that prides itself of being recognized as the leader in the market for high quality chocolates and other chocolate related products. Its history spans more than a century of developing the best formulas for chocolates, with the business run and developed extensively by a family organisation. From humble beginnings, the business has expanded enormously with its products being sold internationally in more than 80 countries with almost $1 billion in worldwide sales. â€Å"The predominantly Swiss-owned corporation manufactures various products of its renowned Lindt brand in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, and Austria, as well as in the United States. The international group includes major sales and distribution firms in England, Poland, Spain, Canada, and Australia, as well as sales offices in Buenos Aires, Hong Kong, and Dubai. Lindt & Sprà ¼ngli products are distributed by a network of distributors that spans the globe.† (Fundinguniverse.com, 2010, para. 2). The top management of the company do not rest on their laurels and would want to expand further in the Far East and Asia. However, a thorough study of possible cross-cultural issues must be undertaken, since European

Analytic Report of Hunting PLC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analytic Report of Hunting PLC - Essay Example Hunting Plc focused on the shipping industry. Originally, the Hunting Plc had been named Hunting and Pattison. The company has two ships. The two ships are Genii and Sylvia. During 1890, Hunting Plc invested large sums of capital in the oil tanker business (Plunkett 2007). The managers of Hunting Plc focused on their activity, being a broker for the tankers. As time flew by rapidly, the managers of Hunting Plc expanded their business. The new 1930s to 1940s focus included aircraft maintenance. In addition, the company entered the air transports during the 1930s and 1940s.also, the company set up the Hunting aircraft during 1944. In 1945, Hunting Plc gave time to their new business venture, Hunting Air Travel Ld and the airline business. During 1959, the company also ventured into the new business British Aircraft Corporation. Presently, the company is engaged in the construction of oil wells and oil platform accessories market segment (http://www.hunting.plc.uk/). Further, the compan y used borrowed money to finance the company’s assets. The total liabilities amount, ?217,000 includes the accounts payable and short/long term debt. The company also generates ?103,000,000 funds from other liabilities (http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/is?s=HTG.L&annual). Borrowing money is another source of cash inflows. Another source of funds is capital investment (Brigham 2011). In terms of Hunting Plc’s 2009 size, the company is significantly BIG. As of 2009, the company’s current assets reached ?580,000,000. In addition, the company’s 2009 total assets amounts to ? 818,000,000. The total assets include the ?404,000,000 cash and cash equivalents, ? 54,000,000, and inventory amounting to net receivables amounting to ? 116,000,000 (http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/is?s=HTG.L&annual). Identity if the type of Hunting Plc. Hunting Plc is Britain’s top supplier of the needs of companies engaged in the oil and gas industries. An estimated 30 percent of the company is owned by the Hunting family. The company’s headquarters is in London. In terms of operations, the company operates in the oil and gas equipment and services area. The company supplies materials needed by the gas and oil business players. Further, Hunting Plc competes on broad basis. The company’s competitors include Petrofact Limited. The other competitors are The Wir Group PLC. A third group is called Schlumberg Ltd. Another competitor is Lamprell Plc. Hunting Plc generated ? 360,000,000 alone during 2009. Likewise, Hunting Plc generated a net income after tax amounting to ? 29,000,000. Based on its history, Hunting Plc established its own unique growth strategy by acquiring other related companies. Hunting Plc acquired Innova Extel for US $ 125 million during August of 2010. The company’s acquisition ensures Hunting Plc’s entry into the profitable environment electronics technology to the worldwide energy environment. Another growth strategy is to set up a branch in strategic locations around the world. The company sets up production plants and hires people around the world to deliver the world famous top quality service to the Hunting Plc clients. The company also established leading technological and service presence on its current business strategies. The company prefers to enter into a business where profits are very significantly large (Hutaikbat 2011). Mission The company’s mission statement is a good model to be implemented. The employees and management set up a

Introduction to Strategic Management Report Essay

Introduction to Strategic Management Report - Essay Example The companies include Lexus, Daihatsu, and Hino Motors among others. A recent study shows that Toyota has sold over more than 12 million cars. The company also manufactures forklifts, buses, industrial equipment, and buses. Toyota has a large market in North America. The United States of America is a host to five plants of the Toyota Company. The locations are in Buffalo, West Virginia; San Antonio, Texas; Huntsville, Alabama, Georgetown, Kentucky and Princeton, Indiana. Early imports from Japan like the Toyopet did not make large sales due to their small size. However, due to energy crisis in the 1970s, Americans and other countries imported Toyota cars because of their fuel efficiency and lower price compared to other cars in the automobile industry. The rise of fuel prices and side effects of global warming prompted the company to manufacture fuel efficient cars. The recent brands like Highlander, Camry and Prius are a proof of the firm’s objective to make fuel efficient ve hicles. The vehicles serve the current global market that requires cost efficient and effective cars. An international business is an enterprise or entity that is involved in commercial transactions in two or more than two countries. An international business cuts across boundaries in doing business. The business environments are the surrounding factors that influence the business performance (Fry et.al, 2009). The business environment can have a number of impacts on a business. Toyota Motor Corporation falls into this category. Before introducing a business venture in a foreign land, it is imperative to study the business environment to establish the feasibility of the particular business. The economic factors in a given country will influence the habits of the consumer. A good economy is one that has empowered consumers to purchase products they demand thus satisfy their needs. Recession and Inflation influence the purchasing power of

Tyco International Company Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Tyco International Company Culture - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that ethics signifies the habit, customs, disposition, and significance of an individual. Ethics has been related to honesty and morality conducted by an individual or employee in their personal or professional lives.   Although, there is no widely accepted definition of   business ethics but according to author Lewis it is defined as rules, standards, principles, codes, which provide guidelines   for the morally right behavior and the truthfulness   in certain specific situations It is observed that an organization with a diverse workforce face various situational dilemma and issues arising out of ethical values. Ethics can be termed asset of moral standards that help the managers and the employees to arrive at a unified decision with the stakeholders. The influence of the legal laws on the managerial decision making is huge and has a considerable amount of influence on the personal and professional lives of the people. Tyco Intern ational Ltd It was observed that after the scandalous activity performed by the management of Enron Corporation the share prices of Tyco International started decreasing gradually. Initially, the accountability of the decreasing shares was given to the heavy intraday trading on a particular day which amounted to the US $68 million. However, the share price of the company started decreasing drastically from $4.45 to $ 47.95 per share. The final blow to the employees and the shareholders was when the management announced that the total earnings of the company had dropped down drastically to 24 percent in the year 2001 compared to the year 2000. The share price of the company had dropped down to $29.90 which was a decrease of 50 percent since January 2002. Tyco International was facing one of the biggest financial crises and the incident had sparked controversies in the entire United States of America. This had led to the management of the company to borrow funds and an analyst had cal led the situation as â€Å"crisis in confidence†.

Love your enemy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Love your enemy - Essay Example I was on my way to school and came across a group of young men sited on a bench talking animatedly. As I was passing by, one of them shouted offensively at me, making it seem like everyone of my kind was part of the ISIS militia group. The recent killings and beheadings in Syria and the Arab world were making it difficult for ethnical compatibility especially in the United States, which has suffered in the hands of terror groups. The society has turned to condemning anyone looking like a Muslim making them feel unwelcome. Before passing by this group of guys, I had not realized that which was happening in the Middle East was having a ripple effect across the world. I ignored them and walked away without giving it a second thought. However, I remembered that a friend of mine had told me of a similar incident and this all started to add up. We were an enemy even if we were not related to ISIS’s actions in any way. We were labeled terrorists even if people had no evidence to thei r claims. Examining why most of the people were joining such radical groups, I realized it was partly because of what the society was doing to innocent people. The labeling theory was taking shape at the expense of the togetherness expected within the society. Despite the religious animosity across many parts of the world, it is quite simple to make good use of the situation at hand, and this implies having to deal with clouded emotions with sobriety. It will not be easy, but it is worthwhile. If the society did this often, the religious wars and crimes in the neighborhood would be minimized. Like the Holy Book commands, it is critical to be a witness of fair dealings even when people hate you for it. Despite one’s religion, it is easy to extend an olive branch to the other party and feel happy for doing such. I learned that my reactions after this incident would determine whether I could look at my enemies and consider them as my friends. The brewing hatred is

Nursing Leadership & Management and its Concerns Essay

Nursing Leadership & Management and its Concerns - Essay Example There is certainly also the feeling that I am being taken advantage of because of my willingness to substitute on other units. The nursing office may have other choices, but probably consider me the easiest to convince. So, although it is not usually in my personality to be confrontational, I feel that I would have no choice under these circumstances and I would initially have to use the confronting conflict resolution method in approaching this situation. I would need to confront the nurse's office with the fact that I have no qualifications to work OB and that even though I have served in different capacities in the hospital I would not feel secure in giving the patients in OB anywhere near standard care. This also uses the technique of forcing my view on the nurse's office so they can see that I am not willing to just say yes. However, not wanting to make my supervisors feel that I am not a team player and simply do not want to cooperate because it is Saturday night, I would also use the strategy of negotiation to help resolve the problem for both the hospital and myself. Each party, may or may not be aware of the others conceptualization of the meaning of the conflict, but the parties do have what they believe is a clear concept of the conflict in their own mind. To determine the accuracy of the beliefs about the conflict, both parties need to sit down and determine the existence and nature of the conflict and the reasons it exists. (Kelly-Heidenthal, 2003, p. 338) I would suggest that I substitute for someone else on another ward that I am more capable of handling and that they are they are more qualified, work in OB. Although the Nurses office said that I am the most qualified, I may only be the most available and if they looked into it the way I suggest they may be able to find an alternative. If they were not able  to, at least my offer to work would help to placate any suspicions that I am just trying to go out on a Saturday night.

Women in Vietnam Essay Example for Free

Women in Vietnam Essay In Vietnam, women were encouraged to serve within the government and other sectors within the state. Unlike in other countries where women are stereotyped as being weak, in Vietnam, it was different. (Insun, p47-p56) Women were treated as equals. They were given the same positions as those ones of women and were given the same respect. Women were especially encouraged to take up the jobs which were believed to be a man’s reserve. They went out of their way to serve their country as humanitarians, entertainers, military dependents, USAID, civilian nurses, in military, as correspondents and in special services. (Insun, p78-p80) There were a good number of women in Vietnam who served as professionals in the field of medicine, teaching, law, professional nurses, controllers of air traffic, language and intelligence specialists, photographers, physical therapists, aerial reconnaissance, legal officers, security officers and administrative positions. Civilian women in Vietnam also served in the Red Cross, journalists, humanitarian organizations and as flight attendants. They were also leaders in the churches. (Chen, p78) Despite the fact that these women were active then, they kept a low profile. Today, nobody can tell who these women are. This is because they don’t show off and have camouflaged. Women made very noble contributions towards the wars in Vietnam. They fought alongside men and did everything men did and they in fact did it a better. (Insun, p34-p67) It has been said that if the country of Vietnam must heal, women must come forward to reveal their involvements and experiences in the war. Unfortunately, they have not been recognized and acknowledged as significant in the history of Vietnam. The situation has been worsened by their silence and the pain and struggles kept deep within them. Women do not believe that they deserve the same recognition and respect like that given to men. (Woodside, p678) Women in special services were mostly under the army. These armies as well as civilians were under the employees’ defense department. The departments that were served by women were related to recreation and morale and included the bases of the Army in the states. (Song, p456) Most of the divisions were also related to works of arts and crafts, service clubs, libraries, movies, sports and entertainment. These women administered special programs, for example, ‘Rest’ as well as the program relating to recreation. The reason why women were entrusted with these positions was their warm hearted nature. They were icon of hope to the whole of Vietnam; they had a role of encouraging men and giving them morale during wars. They ensured that the homes did not fall apart despite their involvements in other services. Women were good volunteers in these services and they had the welfare of the country and the people in mind. It was not a burden to serve their country since they could see the big picture. (Taylor, p267) As librarians, women gave magazines, books and newspapers to the soldiers. The books served as sources of the correspondent courses they were taking and also for leisure. Most of their wonderful memories were hopping flights, clubs, time shared with friends as well as the loved ones. However, there were still some enmities created during the early days. Women fought wars along the beautiful coastline and peaceful villages and rice fields. These areas were My Lai, Chu Lai, the Que Son Valley, A Shau, Da Nang, Phu Bai and hue. Women witnessed the demise of thousands five bases as well as landing zones. (Woodside, p567) At the military, women served with pride. They knew that their efforts were for a worthy cause. They knew that their victory was a victory for all. During the women’s anniversary, they gathered their past and present achievements. There were at least one thousand and two hundred soldiers selected from the women population and served as band leaders and translators, clerks and typists. (Insun, p78)

The Effects of Peer Leadership

The Effects of Peer Leadership Theory Leadership, by definition, is the process of guiding and directing the behavior of people in the work environment (Nelson/Quick, 2011). The leader influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal, usually set by the organization. Leadership and management are not interchangeable; they deal with very separate things in the work place. In general, management involves tasks that are necessary for the business, such as staffing, budgeting, and problem solving, whereas leaders focus on the people within the organization and their needs, such as motivation, goal setting, and camaraderie. Currently in the workforce, there are three different generations of leaders: the Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964), Generation X (1961-1981), and Generation Y (1974- 1994) (Robbins, 2008). Stereotypically speaking, there are differences in leadership styles and work ethics between these generations. Baby Boomers resist change and are unwilling to understand the new age. Those in Generation X are seen as unmotivated and selfish, though they generally have strong communication skills and are technologically savvy. Individuals born in the Generation Y do not have the same, strong work ethic as previous generations and do not understand the meaning of hard work, but are viewed as energetic, able to multitask, and very technologically savvy. Because of the differences between the generations, this could make leading groups or teams difficult. However, according to Robbins, all leaders  ¿Ã‚ ½must learn to dismiss stereotypes and gain an understanding of all generations ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ (Robbins, 2008). Today ¿Ã‚ ½s leaders face many challenges. From diversity and generational differences to globalization and technological progression, it is how leaders face these challenges that set apart effective leaders from unsuccessful ones. The most important implications for leaders are that they need to be good diagnosticians. Leaders must be flexible enough to vary their own behavior in relation to the needs of individuals in particular situations in an appropriate way. Peer leadership is great for situational leadership. Successful peer leading in university settings is the result of relationships among students, mentors and instructors (Ashman, 2010, pg. 121). Teaching also occurs between and among students as they work together and at times mentor each other in and outside the classroom. Though instructors may wish otherwise, this sort of peer teaching may have an even greater impact on students than teaching in the classroom (Goodlad, 1998). They suggest that academic involvement and interaction with faculty and fellow students increases the time and physical and psychological energy that students devote to the academic experience. Two of the most common situations that involve students helping other students are peer mentoring and peer leading, such as residential life settings (Ashman, 2010, pg. 122) .Peer leading focuses on more experienced students helping less experienced students improve overall academic performance, encourages mentors ¿  ½ personal growth (Falchikov, 2001; Kram, 1985), and provides advice, support and knowledge to the mentee (University of South Australia, 2003). Using peer tutors requires a whole system of training and support concerning the socialization of students, teachers and instructors. Peer leaders are a great help to the student body. It is because of the similarity in age that students can better relate with the peer group they are leading. They are the connecting link. In other words, they help other students inside and outside of class get involved with their campus and education (Sanft Jensen McMurray, 2008). Also, because peer leaders are less authoritative, students feel more comfortable at times approaching them making them more effective leaders. It ¿Ã‚ ½s really important for students to have leaders ¿Ã‚ ½ knowledge of resources and events on campus. Students are the  ¿Ã‚ ½go-to ¿Ã‚ ½ people when it comes to learning information about things relevant to their age group. Peer leadership guides and motivates other students (Ashman, 2010, pg. 125). Peer leaders encourage their students to get involved on campus, study more efficiently and improve academically.  ¿Ã‚ ½They ¿Ã‚ ½re not just leaders to the students [in their class], they ¿Ã‚ ½re leaders to all students ¿Ã‚ ½ they ¿Ã‚ ½re an example to all students. ¿Ã‚ ½ (Interview 40) In the role of learning coach, peer leaders teach students important academic and life skills (9 of 29). Almost every proponent of peer approaches indicates some sort of benefit to both sides of a peer mentor relationship (Ashman, 2010, pg. 127). In the past two decades, much new research on inspirational leadership theories has emerged. Transformational leadership, charismatic leadership, and authentic leadership are all important developments in inspirational leadership. As the Residential Life program assists in the development of life skills, such as respect, accountability, mindfulness, responsibility, and patience, transformational leadership is demonstrated through staff forming emotional bonds with residents and  ¿Ã‚ ½arousing enthusiasm for a common vision ¿Ã‚ ½ (Kearney 1). Instead of using their official position to manage residents, Residential Life staff members rely on their personal attributes to inspire and excite. As role models, Residential Life staff members are charismatic, provide inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation, and show individualized consideration, all sub-dimensions of transformational leadership (Kearney 1). According to Nelson and Quick (2011), individualized consideration refers to how much attention leaders place on individual needs, and inspirational motivation is how well a leader is able to  ¿Ã‚ ½articulate a vision that is appealing to its followers ¿Ã‚ ½ (Nelson/Quick 197). Studies have shown that transformational leadership increases firm performance (Nelson/Quick 197). According to Judge and Piccolo (2004), it is positively related to a number or important outcomes, including the satisfaction, motivation, and performance of followers. Transformational leadership is effective because leaders encourage followers to set goals that are equal to their own personal interests and values (Nelson/Quick 197). This results in followers valuing their work more because their ultimate goals match up with who they are. The Residential Life program consists of staff members ranging in age. With student RAs in every residential hall, there is little age difference between leaders and followers. This small age gap could conceivably influence the relationship between transformational leadership and team performance. Eric Kearney sought to examine the question of whether transformational leadership is more effective when it is provided by team leaders who are older than the other team members. According to Bass and Riggio (2006), personal identification and respect for a leader, as well as the internalization of the leader ¿Ã‚ ½s values, are all key mediating processes through which transformational leadership exerts its effects. Kearney proposes that as well as being perceived as  ¿Ã‚ ½competent and extraordinary (i.e. transformational), ¿Ã‚ ½ leaders must also be considered deserving of a special status. He then refers to Festinger ¿Ã‚ ½s (1954) social comparison theory that states that people have a natural tendency to evaluate themselves and their abilities (Kearney 2). In teams consisting of members of similar levels of education and qualifications, members will search for legitimate reasons why one among them has been selected to lead. As RAs enforce rules and regulations in residential halls, residents of the same age may question the RAs authority. If students do not fully accept the legitimacy of the status and power of the RAs, it greatly reduces the potential positive impact of the RA. Through studying 49 Research and Development teams in a multinational pharmaceutical company, Kearney hypothesized that  ¿Ã‚ ½the age difference between a team leader and his or her followers moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and team performance such that this relationship is stronger with increasing leader age relative to the team. ¿Ã‚ ½ He examined teams consisting of researchers and technicians who interacted often and worked interdependently toward common team goals. The average mean age of the 49 teams was 38.78 and the mean age of the team leaders was 42.98. After 6 months, the direct supervisor of each team rated team performance. Kearney ¿Ã‚ ½s results indicate that it makes a difference whether transformational leadership is provided by a leader who is older than or close to the same age as the followers. When the leader was older than the other team members, there was a positive relationship between transformational leadership and team performance. He interprets his findings based on the social comparison theory. Kearney states that leaders who are about the same age as the other team members are more likely to be viewed by similarly qualified team members of lacking the  ¿Ã‚ ½legitimacy to occupy a privileged position ¿Ã‚ ½ (Kearney 7). This in turn may make the team identify less with the leader and resist the internalization of the leader ¿Ã‚ ½s visions and values. Kearney does note however, that the non-significant correlations between leader age and both transformational leadership and team performance show that older leaders themselves are neither perceived as more transformational nor are they more effective as leaders than younger leaders. Thus, leaders who are of a similar age as the other team members can be successful as leaders who are older than their followers. Kearney ¿Ã‚ ½s findings do suggest that leaders of a similar age as the followers are less likely to positively affect team performance through transformational behaviors. Application At Skidmore College, students are used to help lead the student body in the residential halls. Students are hired to work as  ¿Ã‚ ½Resident Assistants ¿Ã‚ ½ to help foster a healthy and happy living environment for the students. Resident Assistants generally employ one of three potential leadership styles. These styles are laissez-faire, autocratic and democratic. 1) Laissez-faire: The laissez-faire leadership style has an unusual approach. Rather than actively directing a team to perform a task, the laissez-faire style gives little to no direction. Known as  ¿Ã‚ ½hands off, ¿Ã‚ ½ the laissez-faire system provides freedom an individual team. Although the laissez-faire leadership style in many situations can prove to be controversial and negatively affect the outcome of a group ¿Ã‚ ½s performance, it is not completely useless. Often if people are intrinsically motivated in a particular area the role of an active leader is not prevalent to encourage. The laissez-faire style can also be important and works very well for a team of experienced and trustworthy individuals. For example, consider a construction site with an architect and a five of his workers. The five workers have been building homes for ten years and understand construction very well. In this scenario the architect designed the home laying out the details and materials needed to get the job don e safe and efficiently. Although the architect is the leader, his expertise consists of imagining the home but not necessarily the process of how it is to be built. Based on the architects original plan, the works build the house without any additional guidance from the architect, unless necessary. To clarify further, the architect knows where to put the window, but is not quite as sure how to put it there subsequently trusting his workers to build it. The  ¿Ã‚ ½hands off ¿Ã‚ ½ approach allows the workers to utilize their personalized techniques and work with each other in order to complete the task. The laissez-faire leadership style also applies to residential life at Skidmore College. The jobs of residential assistant aren ¿Ã‚ ½t solely to boss students around and keep order, but also to make student feel comfortable. As new students arrive at school they are filled with an array of emotions including anxiety, excitement, and fear that can make any individual uncomfortable. It is the job of a residential assistant to make the transition easier by creating a welcoming feel and sense of community within the dorm. That does not mean that an RA is responsible for a particular student ¿Ã‚ ½s friend making process, or work balancing skills. In order to expose a new student to the rest of their dormitory without  ¿Ã‚ ½holding ones hand, ¿Ã‚ ½ a laissez-faire approach is an intelligent direction to go in. Fun icebreakers that involve the young adults and allow students to meet each other work significantly well. The RA is initiates the interaction and explains the rules for th e ice-breaker, then steps aside as students take control of the outcome of the game. If the RA gets too involved it can take away from the experience. For returning students, the laissez-faire style is also necessary as these students are experienced and have already gone through the process. Therefore, the returning students do not need much guidance and are fine on their own. In the concept of the laissez- faire behavioral theory, leaders believe that their followers will perform to their greatest ability if they let them  ¿Ã‚ ½respond to their responsibilities and obligations in their own ways ¿Ã‚ ½ (Web Finance. 2010). This principle allows their followers to excel at their own expense and allows them to be accountable for their decision making. This concept gives followers more freedom to work at their own pace and allows them to feel as if they are in charge of themselves. Although this shows that the leader is respecting that there may be different work needs among their workers, this type of leadership method does not always work. Within this laissez-faire concept, the leader may be seen as trying to relinquish his or her tasks that they were originally apportioned (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 81). This style of leadership can cause uncertainties within one ¿Ã‚ ½s position and it can  ¿Ã‚ ½cause interpersonal conflict at work ¿Ã‚ ½ because t here is a poor communication between what the leader wants and what the followers do (Nelson Quick, 2011, pg. 189). Take the role of a resident assistant in a resident at a university. When a resident assistant has his or her first floor meeting with their floor there is usually a discussion about what the rules and expectations of the resident hall. If this resident assistant decides not to set any ground rules or give any direction many conflicts would arise. There would not be a clear and concise framework for this situation which would leave the question,  ¿Ã‚ ½Who exactly is the leader and what does their position really entail? ¿Ã‚ ½ Many of residents would not have any guidance to know how to act when sharing a living space with different people and this could create tension among one another which would later cause disagreements and confusion. To further discuss this point, there was a study that wanted to prove that laissez-faire leadership behavior was considered to be a damaging management behavior within the workplace (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 80). According to the experimenters, some problems this concept caused in the work setting were conflicts and misperceptions about role positions, disagreements among employees, harassment, and  ¿Ã‚ ½ psychological distress ¿Ã‚ ½ (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 80). With these variables, the researchers came up with these five hypotheses to correlate these problems with laissez-faire leadership:  ¿Ã‚ ½Hypothesis 1: Experiencing laissez-faire leadership by one ¿Ã‚ ½s immediate superior is associated with high levels of role conflict and role ambiguity ¿Ã‚ ½. (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg.81)  ¿Ã‚ ½Hypothesis 2: Experiencing laissez-faire leadership by one ¿Ã‚ ½s immediate superior is associated with high conflict levels with coworkers ¿Ã‚ ½ (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 82)  ¿Ã‚ ½Hypothesis 3: Role stressors and conflicts with coworkers mediated the relationship between superiors ¿Ã‚ ½ laissez-faire leadership and subordinates experienced exposure to bullying at work ¿Ã‚ ½ (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 82)  ¿Ã‚ ½Hypothesis 4: Superiors ¿Ã‚ ½ laissez-faire leadership is directly associated with subordinates ¿Ã‚ ½ exposure to bullying at work. ¿Ã‚ ½ (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 84)  ¿Ã‚ ½Hypothesis 5: Role stressors, conflicts with coworkers, and bullying mediate the relationship between superiors ¿Ã‚ ½ laissez-faire leadership and psychological distress among the subordinates ¿Ã‚ ½ (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg.84). With these hypotheses in mind, the experimenters mailed surveys to 2,273 Norwegian workers to assess whether or not they were exposed to this type of leadership behavior (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 84). The mean age of this sample was 43.4 years and half of the test subjects were women (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 84). Skogstad et al. (2007) used a number of testing measures to evaluate the responses of the workers such as one from  ¿Ã‚ ½the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire ¿Ã‚ ½ to gain insight on the subjects contact with this leadership style (p. 84). In a portion of the survey, the researchers also used  ¿Ã‚ ½the Bergen Conflict Inventory ¿Ã‚ ½ to find out what types of conflicts the subjects experienced whether it was job-oriented or personal differences among coworkers (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 84). Within the results, the experimenters discovered that more than half of the workers  ¿Ã‚ ½experienced a low level of laissez-faire leadership, but that out of all the ot her effects of this concept, there was a sound relationship linked to harassment as well as the other office stressors mentioned before. (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg. 84-85). The reasoning behind this conclusion was when a leader does not meet up to their followers ¿Ã‚ ½ anticipations or show that they are apparent within the workplace, mannerisms such as role conflicts are initiated (Skogstad et al. 2007, pg.86). This study shows how, at times, laissez-faire leadership can be a hindrance in certain organizations and business. 2) Autocratic Leadership: Autocratic leadership is considered to be an outdated, classical style of leadership. Fundamentally, autocratic control places all power into the hands of the leader. In autocratic leadership managers seek to make as many decisions as possible, have the most authority and control in decision making, retain responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation, consult with other colleagues in minimally and prefer to work on the task at hand (Gastil, 1994, pg. 386). The reason autocratic leadership survives, is because it is intuitive, has many short-term benefits and comes naturally to many leaders (Gastil, 1994, pg. 387). Despite having critics, autocratic leadership offers many rewards to managers who emply it. For instance, stress is reduced due to increased control (Gastil, 1994, pg. 387). Also, group productivity often increases under increased surveillance (Gastil, 1994, pg. 388). The oversight that an autocratic manager exerts over a team improves their efficiancy and makes them less likely to be negligent. This is good for under-motivated employees who have little concern or interest in the quality of work and the speed with which that task is accomplished. Also, logistics of operations are improved (Gastil, 1994, pg. 390). Having one leader with in charge of everything makes it more likely that problems are foreseen and deadlines are met. This makes autocratic leadership best for complex projects where efficient cooperation is imperative to success. Faster decision making is another benefit (Gastil, 1994, pg. 392). When only one person makes decisions, choices are made faster. Unfortunately, in most instances, autocratic leadership only leads to short-term improvement and carries grave long-term effects (Gastil, 1994, pg. 393). Even though leading autocratically can cause faster decisions making, the manager is actually hindering his or her workforce from progressing. This is a result of depriving employees of the opportunity to gain experience and learn from their mistakes, which leads to poorer decisions and productivity in the long run (Gastil, 1994, pg. 394). Managers with poor leadership skills with often revert to this leadership style (Gastil, 1994, pg. 394). By assuming all responsibility an autocratic leader naturally works at his or her full capacity. This hyper-focus on work comes at the expense of good leadership development (Gastil, 1994, pg. 396). While autocratic leadership has virtues in certain instances, autocratic leadership is not appreciated by employees. People dislike being ordered around (Gastil, 1994, pg. 396). As a result, the autocratic leadership style can create in a non-motivated workforce. Although autocratic leadership is a good solution for non-motivated workers, it is the leadership style alone that often demotivates employees (Gastil, 1994, pg. 397). After becoming accustomed to receiving orders with little return on cooperation, workers lose the confidence to make their own decisions. Accordingly, workers become ineffective functioning on their own. 3) Democratic Leadership: Democratic Leadership encourages the distribution of responsibility, the use of delegation and continual group input (Woods, 2004, pg. 4). Democratic leadership is characterized by managers seeking assistance on decisions, delegating tasks, welcoming feedback and encouraging others to become leaders (Woods, 2004, pg. 4). The result of this very involved leadership style is a more positive work environment (Woods, 2004, pg. 7). An environment where employees are given responsibility are challenged results in an organization where employees are more inspired to work. Similarly, the process of receiving feedback corresponds with better decision making and effective operations (Woods, 2004, pg. 8). In other words, democratic leaders ¿Ã‚ ½ engagement with employees results in their knowing when something is going wrong, while employees under autocratic rule are discouraged from informing the leader. Another benefit is that democracy breeds creative thinking (Woods, 2004, pg. 10). Unrestricted flow of ideas and positivity is the unsurpassed vehicle for creativity. Reduction of friction and office politics is another reward of democratic leadership. By allowing employees to think freely, managers reduce the amount of tension employees are subject to (Woods, 2004, pg. 11). When autocratic leaders refuse to listen to their workers they are effectively asking to be undermined. Unfortunately, democratic leadership can be in danger of pseudo participation (Woods, 2004, pg. 19). If managers simply pretend to employ democratic leadership to seem friendlier, employees will realize this when their ideas are not actually valued. Accordingly, the manager-employee relationship will be subject to further misfortune.

The Decision: Finding the Right College Essay -- Informative, College

A student sifts through stacks of once enticing, but now monotonous mail. They all seem to have the same message, pleading with the student to consider attending their school. The letters outline details about certain features the school has that may make them stand out among the crowd. Most of the schools are ones that the student has never even heard of. The student, tired of looking through these boring letters, decides to go online and look at some of the colleges that caught their eye. A student and his parents sit across from each other at the dining room table. Laid out in front of them are papers detailing different college’s financial outlook. They discuss the pros and cons of each school, and talk about how money is a factor to where he goes. Somewhere across the country, a prospective student-athlete is on the phone with a coach from the basketball team. The coach is telling the student all about what the school offers for their major and what kind of players they a re trying to recruit. The coach also asks the student questions about normal life as well, trying to establish a solid relationship which can make or break the recruitment process. Leaves are falling on the sidewalk as a different student tours a potential college. He tours all the main buildings while tossing questions at his tour guide about life on campus. The future can be frightening. For many high school students around the world, the future contains going on to college. This decision of where to go to college can be a time-consuming, mentally exhausting, and plain difficult decision. There are multiple ways this can be done. Every school has an on-line website and sends out mail. By scanning through these, students can get a feel for the school is like... ...d it. By having a plan, the student can save themselves hours of stress because they will not have to go through and research every little detail as their senior year comes to a close. The smartest way to go about making a decision is to make at least one college visit. No letter, web page, or phone call can supersede actually experiencing the college. This is not to say the only item a student should worry about taking tours of colleges. It takes a combination of multiple items to come to a solid and final conclusion on where to go to college. While it may be formidable for a student to think about choosing where to continue college, it can also be an enjoyable process because they student can, for the, decide what kind of experience they want. Students should not be afraid, they need to embrace the process and be ready to enjoy the next four years of their lives. The Decision: Finding the Right College Essay -- Informative, College A student sifts through stacks of once enticing, but now monotonous mail. They all seem to have the same message, pleading with the student to consider attending their school. The letters outline details about certain features the school has that may make them stand out among the crowd. Most of the schools are ones that the student has never even heard of. The student, tired of looking through these boring letters, decides to go online and look at some of the colleges that caught their eye. A student and his parents sit across from each other at the dining room table. Laid out in front of them are papers detailing different college’s financial outlook. They discuss the pros and cons of each school, and talk about how money is a factor to where he goes. Somewhere across the country, a prospective student-athlete is on the phone with a coach from the basketball team. The coach is telling the student all about what the school offers for their major and what kind of players they a re trying to recruit. The coach also asks the student questions about normal life as well, trying to establish a solid relationship which can make or break the recruitment process. Leaves are falling on the sidewalk as a different student tours a potential college. He tours all the main buildings while tossing questions at his tour guide about life on campus. The future can be frightening. For many high school students around the world, the future contains going on to college. This decision of where to go to college can be a time-consuming, mentally exhausting, and plain difficult decision. There are multiple ways this can be done. Every school has an on-line website and sends out mail. By scanning through these, students can get a feel for the school is like... ...d it. By having a plan, the student can save themselves hours of stress because they will not have to go through and research every little detail as their senior year comes to a close. The smartest way to go about making a decision is to make at least one college visit. No letter, web page, or phone call can supersede actually experiencing the college. This is not to say the only item a student should worry about taking tours of colleges. It takes a combination of multiple items to come to a solid and final conclusion on where to go to college. While it may be formidable for a student to think about choosing where to continue college, it can also be an enjoyable process because they student can, for the, decide what kind of experience they want. Students should not be afraid, they need to embrace the process and be ready to enjoy the next four years of their lives.

Comparison between William Blake and Seamus Heaney Essay -- Writers Wi

Comparison between William Blake and Seamus Heaney In this essay I will compare two internationally recognised poets, William Blake and Seamus Heaney. I will discuss their similarities and differences not in only just their writing, but also their everyday lives. William Blake was born in 1757 in London, where he lived practically all his life apart from three years at the beginning of the 19th century, where he lived in Felpham, near Bognor Regis in Sussex. He had no early education, but became student, studying art, at the Royal academy school in the early 1770s. He was, after this, apprenticed by a famous engraver, James Basire. Blake achieved some success with his engravings, but his true talent was held within his poetry, for which he is more famously known for today, along with his artistic work, particularly his large visionary water-colours illustrating the book of Job, and his 102 illustrations of Dante and his colour-printed drawings of biblical subjects. William grew up and lived in a religious background, which was heavily opposed to anything religiously forced, such as church, for example if one did not go to church they were not deemed to be religious at all, but Blake thought that religion was a path to freedom and peace. There is plenty of evidence showing that Blake thought this, although we shall read into more detail later on. Seamus Heaney is still alive today. Born on the 13th of April 1939, Seamus was the eldest of nine children, one of whom died in a road accident. Seamus lived all of his young life on a farm, although he did not wish to be a farmer himself. He went to primary school in Anahorish. Here on he won scholarship to St Colomb's College in Londonderry. From here he ... ...e a forced method of religion and therefore he saw it as a time wasting and pointless experience. Blake also references to the French and American revolutions in the following line with "And the hapless soldier's sigh Runs in blood down palace walls" Perhaps showing that soldiers and innocent people were killed and the people in power did nothing at all about it. Overall, I can conclude that William Blake and Seamus Heaney are both different and similar. Both poets have some sort of sadness or depression in their poems, yet they are expressed in different ways. Two noticeable differences are that Heaney's poems are generally much longer than Blake's, and rhyme far less. Heaney's poetry is more story telling like than Blake's, with Blake using much more rhyming way of making poetry, and he also describes his thoughts much more than Heaney does.

Untraditional Students Essay -- Education College Adults Learning Essa

Untraditional Students "What can a college education offer me?" Contemplating a return to school after years of childrearing and paid labor is both daunting and invigorating. Entering college as an adult is a life-changing decision. It requires shifts in perception that jar us out of the familiar patterns of our lives. The American Association of Colleges & Universities (AAC&U) reports that the enrollment of adults aged 25 and above has risen dramatically over the past two decades. Adult students now make up 42 percent of all college graduates. What motivates these students? What do they hope to gain from their college educations and what do they actually receive? For many returning students, the motivation is economic. We have heard over and over again that the world is changing, that we are entering the information age, that being in possession of knowledge--and a degree--are the keys to open any door. Some students know just what door they want to walk through. They enter college with a career chosen and a degree plan carefully mapped out. For others, the future is less certain. We aren't sure what we want to do, but we see college as the pathway into "the good life." Sometimes this faith in the economic reward of higher education is naive. Once upon a time a college degree did carry with it a high probability of eventual economic success. A bachelor's degree in almost any field was a guarantee of a good job. The belief that a college degree equals economic security is planted deep in our cultural psyche and hangs on with tenacious roots. We believe this component of the American Dream even as it erodes around us. With corporate downsizing, restructuring, and conglomeration, job security is muc... ...rough the whole program?the time pressures, the deadlines, the whole process. I found that I could actually accomplish something." J. William Fulbright, scholar and U.S. senator, wrote that the goal of education is "the teaching of things in perspective, toward the purposes of enriching the life of the individual, cultivating the free and inquiring mind, and advancing the effort to bring reason, justice, and humanity into the relations of men and nations." On the one hand, statements such as these may seem impractical, idealistic, and unattainably high. On the other hand, we want these things in our lives. Human beings need purpose and meaning just as we need shelter and food. The task for any student, and particularly for non-traditional ones, is to synthesize these often disparate needs into a whole that suits the circumstances of our individual lives. Untraditional Students Essay -- Education College Adults Learning Essa Untraditional Students "What can a college education offer me?" Contemplating a return to school after years of childrearing and paid labor is both daunting and invigorating. Entering college as an adult is a life-changing decision. It requires shifts in perception that jar us out of the familiar patterns of our lives. The American Association of Colleges & Universities (AAC&U) reports that the enrollment of adults aged 25 and above has risen dramatically over the past two decades. Adult students now make up 42 percent of all college graduates. What motivates these students? What do they hope to gain from their college educations and what do they actually receive? For many returning students, the motivation is economic. We have heard over and over again that the world is changing, that we are entering the information age, that being in possession of knowledge--and a degree--are the keys to open any door. Some students know just what door they want to walk through. They enter college with a career chosen and a degree plan carefully mapped out. For others, the future is less certain. We aren't sure what we want to do, but we see college as the pathway into "the good life." Sometimes this faith in the economic reward of higher education is naive. Once upon a time a college degree did carry with it a high probability of eventual economic success. A bachelor's degree in almost any field was a guarantee of a good job. The belief that a college degree equals economic security is planted deep in our cultural psyche and hangs on with tenacious roots. We believe this component of the American Dream even as it erodes around us. With corporate downsizing, restructuring, and conglomeration, job security is muc... ...rough the whole program?the time pressures, the deadlines, the whole process. I found that I could actually accomplish something." J. William Fulbright, scholar and U.S. senator, wrote that the goal of education is "the teaching of things in perspective, toward the purposes of enriching the life of the individual, cultivating the free and inquiring mind, and advancing the effort to bring reason, justice, and humanity into the relations of men and nations." On the one hand, statements such as these may seem impractical, idealistic, and unattainably high. On the other hand, we want these things in our lives. Human beings need purpose and meaning just as we need shelter and food. The task for any student, and particularly for non-traditional ones, is to synthesize these often disparate needs into a whole that suits the circumstances of our individual lives.

Bureaucratic Management Theory

Bureaucracy is a type of organizational structure that is found in many large-scale public and private organizations. This still exists in the majority of industrial organizations in the world, despite being around since the 18th century. German sociologist, Max Weber created the bureaucratic management theory which describes bureaucracy as technically superior to all other forms of organizations. Bureaucracies have clear and explicit rules outlining exactly how employees should perform tasks.Ideally, bureaucracy is characterized by hierarchical authority relations, defined spheres of competence subject to impersonal rules, recruitment by competence and fixed salaries. The main aims of bureaucracy are to be rational, efficient, and professional. Bureaucracy has an implied clear-cut division of labour and a high level of specialization, as well as a clearly defined hierarchy. Despite being a very old type of organizational structure, bureaucracies continue to be a highly influential t emplate for designing and managing organizations; yet, this system is no longer considered the most effective way to run an organization.Bureaucracy as a system of management has many advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include each employee of the organization knowing precisely what their duties are within the organization, and therefore performing their many tasks quicker and more efficiently. The clear-cut rules set by bureaucratic systems also enable the organization to respond readily to demands that are set and make decision making easy.Bureaucratic systems have a greater sense of direction and purpose than other types of organization structure. The clear-cut criteria of a bureaucratic system enable the organization to appoint successors when an employee leaves without little trouble, and therefore causes as little disruption. The disadvantages that a bureaucratic system brings to the overall running and efficiency of a business and its employees include undermining t he ability of employees to take initiative and be creative.The bureaucratic practices have led to creating a mind that generally lacks curiosity and can only function within certain limits and according to prescribed rules and regulations. The bureaucratic mind, being in control, uses this authority to limit the ability of the system to reform itself. No one within such a system has enough authority to initiate change and no one has enough courage to propose drastic change and disrupt the prevailing order and peace.However, as Max Weber himself noted, real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal type model. Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law. This means that sometimes a decision itself may be considered more important than its effect. Nepotism, corruption, political infighting and other degenerations can counter the rule of impersonality and can create a recruitment and promotion system not based on meritocracy but rather on  oligarchy.Regarding the Japanese style of management, the recruitment procedures for new employees is more rigorous in Japan than in the United Kingdom to ensure that the ‘cream of the crop’ are identified, utilized and cultivated. People are not allowed to use common sense, as everything must be as is written by the law. Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems of overspecialization, which is, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their action.There is rigidity and inertia of procedures, making decision-making slow or even impossible when facing some unusual case, and similarly delaying change, evolution and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances. There is a phenomenon of  group thinking  in terms of zealotry, loyalty and lack of  thinking regarding the organization which is  perfect  and  always correct  by definition, making the organization unable to change and realize its own mistakes and limitations.There is a disregard for dissenting opinions, even when such views suit the available data better than the opinion of the majority. As bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity rises and coordination diminishes, facilitating creation of  contradictory  and  recursive  rules, as described by the saying â€Å"the bureaucracy is expanding to meet the needs of the expanding bureaucracy†. Despite the many disadvantages of bureaucracy, we believe that the degree of control it gives superiors over subordinates to be more serious and possibly the most damaging outcome.For many people, the word ‘Bureaucracy’ conjures up an image of a mass of media workers buried in mounds of paper and tied to a set of petty rules, the notorious ‘red tape’. Red tape can be used as a weapon against programs that are not popular with the administration, for instance, by participating in a program requires you to fill out fo rms. The program might cease to exist if no one uses it. Bureaucracies are often the focus of popular dislike, especially because they are perceived to be inefficient and lack flexibility to meet individual requirements.Osborne and Gaebler (1993) promoted  Debureaucratization, which they summed up as decentralization, deregulation, downsizing and  outsourcing. Debureaucratization is the primary way to achieving the goal of a strong, autonomous, and self-sufficient barangays. This is setting to right the excessive centralization of power, authority, responsibility and recourse by the national government. The shortcomings of bureaucracy are evident in organizations today.Control tends to convince superiors that it is their responsibility to know all details, allow no surprises, delegate no authority and have all situations under tight control. And since no boss can obtain the knowledge he or she needs to control everything and guide everyone and influence every situation, the domi nance of the bureaucratic mind has become a threat, undermining critical thinking, free speech, creativity and institutional transformation.The enlightened bureaucrat that certain people try to promote is nothing but a fiction. As a consequence, very few people in a bureaucracy are in a position to think, take initiative and be creative. New ideas are therefore rarely and seldom encouraged. When control and subordination become the organizing principles of an organization, they undermine the organization’s ability to respond to challenges, to anticipate the growing needs of its clients and to adapt in a time to the changing circumstances of its times.

Financial Accounting vs Management Accounting

Management accounting is a field of accounting that analyzes and provides cost information to the internal management for the purposes of planning, controlling and decision making. Management accounting refers to accounting information developed for managers within an organization. CIMA (Chartered Institute of Management Accountants) defines Management accounting as â€Å"Management Accounting is the process of identification, measurement, accumulation, analysis, preparation, interpretation, and communication of information that used by management to plan, evaluate, and control within an entity and to assure appropriate use of an accountability for its resources†. This is the phase of accounting concerned with providing information to managers for use in planning and controlling operations and in decision making. Managerial accounting is concerned with providing information to managers i. e. people inside an organization who direct and control its operations. In contrast, financial accounting is concerned with providing information to stockholders, creditors, and others who are outside an organization. Managerial accounting provides the essential data with which organizations are actually run. Financial accounting provides the scorecard by which a company’s past performance is judged. Because it is manager oriented, any study of managerial accounting must be preceded by some understanding of what managers do, the information managers need, and the general business environment. The differences between management accounting and financial accounting include 1. Management accounting provides information to people within an organization while financial accounting is mainly for those outside it, such as shareholders 2. Financial accounting is required by law while management accounting is not. Specific standards and formats may be required for statutory accounts such as in the I. A. S International Accounting Standard within Europe. 3. Financial accounting covers the entire organization while management accounting may be concerned with particular products or cost centres. Introduction Financial accounting and management accounting both prepare and analyze financial data. However, certain aspects of these two fields are very different. This article discusses the various differences between financial accounting and management accounting. The differing characteristics to be discussed include the users of information, the types of information, regulatory oversight, and frequency of reporting. Users of Information Financial accounting and management accounting provide information to two different user groups. Financial accounting primarily provides information for external users of accounting data, such as investors and creditors. On the other hand, management accounting provides information for internal users of accounting data. Internal users include employees, managers, and executives of the company. Types of Information The type of information required by the different user groups also differs. External users primarily rely on financial information about the company. They analyze this information in conjunction with general economic information, such as information about the industry in which the company operates. External users focus on broad information that reveals the overall performance of the company as a whole. In addition, financial accounting only reports information on financial transactions that have occurred in the past. Internal users need to review financial information about the company, such as financial statement information. They also use non-financial information about the company, such as customer satisfaction levels and competitor data. Internal users focus on detailed information that reveals the performance of particular subunits of the company, such as divisions or departments. In addition, management accounting concentrates on past and present information, as well as the forecasting of future financial transactions. Regulatory Oversight. In order to protect public interest, financial accounting is regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). In contrast, management accounting is not regulated by any specific agencies. This is because the information provided by management accounting is intended for internal users only and is not available to the public. Therefore, since there is no public interest, there is no need to protect public interest regarding this information. Frequency of Reporting The focus of financial accounting is reporting on historical information. The information is reported periodically. It is often broken down into monthly, quarterly, and annual reporting periods. At a minimum, financial accounting information must be reported annually. On the contrary, management accounting information is reported continually. Internal users need to evaluate past, present, and potential future information in order to make decisions. Therefore, these users continuously need information in order to make the appropriate decisions.